Fortunato is Fortunes Fool in The Cask of Amontillado Essay

Fortunato, Fortunes Fool Who was Fortunes Fool? The answer to that question would be Fortunato. Fortunato is a character in Edgar Allan Poes short story, The Cask of Amontillado. Fortunato has wronged Montresor, the narrator of Cask. The reader cant trust Montresor because he is an unreliable narrator, so the reader cant say for a fact that Fortunato had wronged Montresor. Montresor then seeks revenge on Fortunato. During carnivale season, Fortunato is drinking all types of wine. Montresor knows Fortunato is drunk so he goes to Fortunato and tells him he has Amontillado. Fortunato wants the Amontillado so much, that he is willing to do anything for it, that leads him to his death. Montresor brought Fortunato into the†¦show more content†¦But no! Fortunato insists he is fine, saying ?Let us go, nevertheless. The cold is merely nothing. Amontillado! You have been imposed upon. And as for Luchresi, he cannot distinguish Sherry from Amontillado.? This is also a sign he is an alcoholic, inferring h e knows far more about the Amontillado than Luchresi. It also shows that he is so drunk, that he is outgoing and excited enough to walk right into his death. Alcoholism also leads to Fortunatos demise. As Montresor states, in the matter of old wines he was sincere. Fortunato was an alcoholic. He knew, loved, and had all the wines, except the Amontillado, so when Montresor told Fortunato that he had the Amontillado, Fortunato couldnt resist. At the carnivale, Fortunato was already drunk, so Montresor knew it was the perfect time to avenge Fortunato. Montresor knew that Fortunato was an intelligent man, but Montresor also knew that Fortunato was foolish while he was drunk. Being an alcoholic comes with some consequences: you don?t remember much, drinking a lot makes the person feel drowsy and lazy, and lastly, while you are overly drunk, you don?t know what you are doing. Fortunato was unaware of what Montresor was doing, when drunk, and Montresor was aware that he could kill Fortunato easily when intoxicated. And when Fortunato was getting detoxicated, Montresor gave him more wine, and of course, being the

Common Sense And Civil Disobedience Essay - 1295 Words

Argumentative Essay Common Sense and Civil Disobedience Published in the year 1776, common sense is an open challenge to the British government and the royal monarchy of that time. Paine spoke the language of a common person and worked for the independence of Great Britain. Paine states his opinion by arguing at the American Independence beginning with the theoretical and general reflections about religion and government and move on to the specifications about the situation in the colonies. By doing so, he aims to persuade the people to become more patriotic and join the fight against the British to become an independent nation. At the same time, Thoreau was one of the exciting practitioners of writing and was an intuitive genius. He worked hard to revise as well as refined his material. â€Å"The two authors are historically known for their work for establishing as well as clarifying the ideas of general men in terms of response to their government. Both the authors work on the same time, however presents a bit different explanation of their philosophies.† According to Theuro’s perspective, slavery is the most outweigh causes among all others in bringing the revolution in moral gravity as well as magnitude. He speaks the voice of 1/6th of the entire population of US who is living in slavery. He argues that common people are responsible for their disgrace and the way government treats them. He believes that government is not responsible for the injustice they bring to theShow MoreRelatedAffirmative Case : Civil Disobedience1328 Words   |  6 PagesAffirmative Case: Civil Disobedience Mahatma Gandhi once stated, â€Å"Non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty as cooperation with good.† Because I agree I must affirm the resolution that reads, â€Å"Resolved: Civil disobedience in a democracy is morally justified.† Affirming achieves the value of ‘morality,’ defined from Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary as,† The quality of being in accord with standards of right or good conduct† My value criterion is a legitimate government for all. A democraticRead MoreCivil Disobedience Is A Method Of Nonviolent Rebellion1453 Words   |  6 Pagesdealt with correctly. Doing what’s right. Doing the just thing. That’s what everyone is taught to believe and follow by. Isn’t it more humane to want to solve things rationally? Why not just try to be more human rather than brutes? Civil Disobedience is a method of nonviolent rebellion that causes people to look at what’s taking place around them, and realize that there is no equality around them. Seeing that great actions have been taken place with success, it’s fair to say that anyoneRead MoreThe And Its Effect On Society1343 Words   |  6 Pageswhether it be equality, civil rights, or so on. It goes straight to the fundamental ideas of morality. Is the law just and does it truly provide for the people? In cases of these injustices, who is held responsible? Does this responsibility eventually fall in the hands of the citizens? To what extent are the citizens capable of fighting these injustices for the betterment of society? Over the years, many have stood up to such instances through what is referred to as â€Å"Civil Disobedience.† Now, this is aRead MoreCivil Disobedience, And Martin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail1018 Words   |  5 PagesToday, the word diso bedience carries a negative connotation that acts as a deterrent for necessary disobedience. The common way in which people view disobedience is as a rejection of a rule, law, or a simple standard. Historically, rules were implemented in ways that were deemed immoral by society. Therefore, civil disobedience is justified to combat immoral standards implemented in society. However, civil disobedience is only justified under these circumstances, mainly for the betterment of societyRead MoreThe Need For Civil Disobedience Essay1172 Words   |  5 Pagespolitic, nor popular but because conscience tells one it is right.† Conscience is the main sense of human being that helps to distinguish what is wrong and what is right. Thus, conscience has to be a main driving force when people encounter unjust laws of government. One of the philosophers who favored this idea was Henry David Thoreau. Specifically, he proposed a theory that a personal conscience is the main sense, which is resp onsible for basic rudiments of social principles and argued that if complyingRead MoreCompare And Contrast Antigone And Martin Luther King1006 Words   |  5 Pagesappealing to her audience. Rather than attempting to understand her adversaries, she disdains their reasoning and only accepts her own, which only hurts her act of civil disobedience and its reasoning. In contrast to Antigone’s lack of debating skills, King practiced the art of skillful persuasion and debate. For instance, King Jr. and other civil rights activists attempted to negotiate with various white business owners in hopes of progressing their status in society. However, they soon realized thatRead More##eau, Gandhi, And King And Henry David Thoreaus Civil Disobedience1317 Words   |  6 Pagesa precedent even in the 21st century, Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience underlines the basis of nonviolent protests, and his essay has been used in the works of Gandhi and King. Civil Disobedience, breaking laws that we feel are unjust in order to remain in harmony with our moral law, has been a common method in the past and has also shown to be successful in protests of the 21st century as well, such as the protests on healthcare. Civil Disobedience is one of the many essays by transcendentalist authorRead MoreCivil Disobedience By David Martin Luther King1250 Words   |  5 PagesSaul Franco- Jimenez Civil disobedience In other words civil disobedience indicates that the main objective of disobedience is to bring changes in the social or political order that would affect the freedom of citizens. Nonviolence is the right answer to moral issues and is crucial in politics for any government on our time the need for human mankind to overcome oppression avoiding violence without resorting to oppression with violence. I am in favor of the civil disobedience, because it the onlyRead MoreLegal Positivism Over Natural Law Theory982 Words   |  4 Pagesthe moral aspect. Legal positivism may make things in the legal system simpler, but something being simple does not mean that it is correct or better. Our court system generally does not give license to rule morally. It is structured to punish civil disobedience (even with good reason). It is difficult to say whether a judge should or does rely solely on strictly legal concepts or whether he/she factors in those of a moral base. Of course the law must be upheld. However, as a human being, (judges),Read MoreEarly American Transcendentalism1204 Words   |  5 Pagesextremely intellectual, which the thought of transcendentalism as a philosophy drew scholars to grasp it’s message, and this aspect also assisted in the common man’s view on nature and surrounding life. John L. Locke, an English philosopher, refused the concept of intuitive ide as and stated, There is nothing in the mind except what was first in the senses (â€Å"Locke†). Opposing Locke’s thinking, American transcendentalists believed that an individual’s insight is more important and precious than experience

Mobile Communication Satellite Systems Free Essays

string(115) " a satellite is in its orbit, its orbit is also affected by the presence of other bodies such as the Moon and Sun\." Introduction In this era of 21st century one cannot imagine human life without mobile communication. From mobile handsets to computers, smart-phones to laptops, iPads and Cable Television systems everything is part of this mobile communication era. As the countries are progressing, competition among them is increasing all over the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Mobile Communication Satellite Systems or any similar topic only for you Order Now With the advancement in technology lives of people are getting faster and busier, businesses and industries are expanding globally, therefore, the demand for mobile communication is increasing immensely with every passing day. Scientists, researchers and engineers are always looking for ways to serve the world with this demanding technology in every possible way. During the last 25 years there has been a tremendous growth in the field of satellite communication. The idea of using the Satellite Systems for mobile communication has appealed to many people in the past and it still continue to do so. There has been an extensive research going on in this particular area globally. A lot of progress has been achieved so far but it is a fact that advancement in technology can probably never end. As the demand for communication is increasing, means and resources to carry out this communication are often limited. For instance if communication of information is to take place between the countries that are hundreds of miles apart, across the ocean, the typical wired medium cannot always be used. And also how are we supposed to communicate when we are not connected to the land communication systems by any meansHere satellite systems come into play. With the help of satellite systems we can provide mobile communication services even to very fast moving vehicles, to the aircrafts during flights, to ships and submarines in oceans, and also to remote areas of earth where there is no communication infrastructure. So in this way we are able to provide services to the areas where application of wired cable medium is not always practically possible. Satellites are the object that revolves around the earth in fixed orbits. These satellites are at typically 400 km to 36000 km above the earth surface. Our purpose of communication over long distances is served by these satellites. Another advantage of using the satellite systems for communication is that they can cover a very large geographical area over the earth surface to provide communication means. When we are using a satellite system we are not limited by the problem factors that we encounter on earth such as laying hundreds of miles of expensive cables, space and land to store machinery and equipment to handle this sort of communication, buildings to handle all the infrastructure needed etc. Therefore, Satellite Systems are often given a thought as a better alternative for mobile communication. Before we look into the details of how mobile communication takes place through these satellites, we need to first understand the satellite systems in general as well to have a better understanding of how the whole technology works. Satellites are sent into space from earth. When in space above the earth surface, these satellites are made to revolve around the earth in fixed orbits with the help of gravitational force of the earth. To understand the phenomenon we can take a very simple and well known example from nature and that is of the Moon. Moon is the natural satellite and as it revolves around the earth, it shines over a huge geographical region of the earth. In a similar fashion, man made artificial satellites, though not as big as the moon but still, covers a considerably large section of the earth to provide communication. These artificial telecommunication satellites can be in four different kinds of orbits above the earth surface depending on the purpose they were sent into space. These can either be geo-stationary orbits, elliptical orbits, medium earth orbit or low earth orbits. In geo-stationary orbits, as shown in Figure 1, the satellite remains at a fixed location over the earth surface which means it covers the same geographical region of the earth. Figure1: Geo-Stationary Orbit Elliptical orbits are used when satellites are required to cover a certain geographical area of the earth for longer period of time than the other geographical region of the earth. Figure 2 displays in general a satellite in an elliptical orbit. Figure2: Elliptical Orbiting Satellite Medium earth orbit is between 5000 km to 15000 km above the earth surface. While in low earth orbits, satellites revolve around the earth in circular orbit at about 400 km above the earth surface. Figure 3 depicts the low earth orbits (LEO) and medium earth orbits (MEO) of a satellite. Figure3: LEO and MEO orbiting Satellite Three types of services can be offered by a telecommunication satellite. First is FSS (Fixed Satellite Services), which is for long distance telecommunication services provided by different telecommunication networks on earth stations. Second is DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite services), which is used for direct Television signals broadcasting from large earth stations. And third is MSS (Mobile Satellite Services), which is used to provide mobile communication services to different stations on earth. In the year 1976, Mobile Satellite Communication was started by Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), which is a US based company belonging to the field of telecommunications. The communication satellites launched by them were called MARISAT (Maritime Satellites) and later an International Maritime Satellite organization (INMARSAT) was formed which now provides Mobile Satellite Communication Services [1]. Earlier satellite communication used to take place by routing calls and information from public landline to an earth station first, and then forwarding them to the satellite. But now mobile communication can take place directly between a satellite and a station or handset on earth. This entire phenomenon fantastically sounds simple but there can be few problems as well in using satellites for mobile communications. For instance, keeping the satellite in its orbit is not an easy task. The orbital motion does not depend only upon the earth’s gravitational pull. When a satellite is in its orbit, its orbit is also affected by the presence of other bodies such as the Moon and Sun. You read "Mobile Communication Satellite Systems" in category "Essay examples" Moreover, our earth is not a perfect sphere so its own gravitational force on a satellite can vary at different locations and the Moon and Sun have their own gravitational forces as well that affects the path of a satellite. Under all these circumstances, satellites do drift from their original path which needs to be adjusted in order to keep the satellite on track. To transmit and receive signals, these telecommunication satellites have a number of antennas to receive signals from one mobile earth station and transmit it to one or more mobile earth station. There is a Doppler Shift as well in the transmitted signal which occurs because of the movement of the satellite and rotation of the earth about its own axis. Mobile communication satellite systems can provide services to those areas that cannot get services from networks on earth. These systems can be of three possible forms [2]. First is that a direct link to the gateway of satellite station can be given to a mobile earth station to connect to the network. Second is that a mobile earth station can be connected to a translator station through a radio link which is responsible to transmit the data from a mobile earth station to the gateway station through a satellite link. In the third type of mobile communication satellite system again a direct link can be provided to a mobile earth station but a dedicated satellite system would be required for this purpose. Different frequency bands are allocated to the satellites to perform mobile communication. Mostly used frequency bands are L-Band, C-Band, Ka-Band and Ku-Band. L-Band has the uplink frequency of 1.6 GHz and a downlink frequency of 1.5 GHz for commercial mobile satellite services (MSS). The long wavelength of this band allows it penetrate building structures and also get least affected by rain. Therefore, less powerful antenna transmitters are required. C-Band has the uplink frequency of 6 GHz and a downlink frequency of 4 GHz. Ka-Band uplink and downlink frequencies are 30 GHz and 20 GHz respectively for commercial use of mobile satellite mobile services and 44 GHz and 20 GHz of uplink and downlink frequencies for military use. This band has very large spectrum and high bandwidths available. But due to short wavelengths, it is largely affected by rain. Therefore, to increase the signal power very high power transmitters are required. On the other hand, Ku-Band has the medium range of frequencies. The uplink frequency is 14 GHz and downlink frequency is 12 GHz for fixed commercial use. Due to medium wavelengths, its signals can also penetrate many structures and are still able to provide high bandwidths but still they are affected by rain. As the earth terrestrial networks, satellites are also required to serve a number of users simultaneously. So at a time when millions of users are accessing satellite services there is a need to have some sort of mechanism to differentiate and secure each user’s transmission. For this purpose, there are a number of multiple access schemes of which the three most commonly used are TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). In TDMA, there are different time slots. Each mobile earth station transmits its data in chunks in a specific time slot at the same frequency. So the data of each user is differentiated in different time slots. In FDMA, different frequency bands are allocated to different users for both the uplink and downlink channels. However, TDMA is a better because of its lower distortions of inter-modulation. In FDMA, downlink bandwidth is divided among a number of users whereas in TDMA full downlink bandwidth is available to all users during a specific time slot allocated. Also in FDMA, we may have to decrease transponder power by one half to minimize the distortion due to inter-modulation. The third most commonly used multiple access scheme CDMA has no restrictions as in TDMA and FDMA. Each user can transmit its data at any time and can also use the same frequency bandwidth. In CDMA, each mobile earth station’s transmission is separated by a unique code. Signals transmission are separated by using spread spectrum technology that is why CDMA is also called Spread spectrum Multiple Access. Spread spectrum scheme assigns to each mobile station a unique code to generate a pseudorandom sequence to separate signals transmission and to spread the transmission across the whole bandwidth available from the satellite. When the signals transmission arrives at the receiver, it can be extracted by using the same sequence generated initially. The only limitation of the CDMA scheme is that it is very expensive to implement and can support a very limited number of mobile earth stations at a time. As the science has advanced in technology, there are a number of mobile communication satellite systems now. Now we have a look at the different mobile communications satellite systems that exist today. These mobile communication satellite systems are divided into three groups namely: Geo-Stationary Systems, Big Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Systems and little Low Earth Orbit Systems. In Geo-stationary systems, INMARSAT and MSAT are the two satellite systems that we have. In Big LEO systems we have IRIDIUM, ARIES, ELLIPSO and ODYSSEY satellite systems. For little LEO systems we have LEOSAT, STARNET, ORBCOMM, and VITASAT satellite systems. Of these satellite systems, International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) System is a very well known global mobile satellite telecommunication system. These satellite systems are connected to PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Networks) and they provide connectivity and communication services to a mobile earth station all over the world. Which means a user with a satellite mobile handset connected to the INMARSAT satellite system can receive services while roaming in any part of the world without being dependent on local terrestrial public networks. So a satellite connection proves to be really helpful in case something goes wrong with the terrestrial network such as a natural disaster etc. INMARSAT is running its operation on four geo stationary satellites providing global coverage namely: INMARSAT-A, INMARSAT-M, INMARSAT-B and INMARSAT-C. High quality telephone, fax and high speed data services are provided by INMARSAT-A satellite system. In addition to dialling to a telephone or fax number directly, it can also provide image and video transmission services. INMARSAT-M provide services at a much cheaper rate as compared to INMARSAT-A. It has a fully digital and portable terminal to provide high quality cellular voice and data transmission services. Additional functionalities are added in INMARSAT-B satellite system compared to INMARSAT-A at a much lower charges. Along with new services, it provides very high quality voice services and very high data rates with a scope to increase them further in future. INMARSAT-C comes as a low cost communication system with a light weight terminal powered by a battery. It comes with a small personal computer to communicate with the network headquarter whenever needed. The following Figure 4 shows the statistics of the INMARSAT satellite systems all over the world [3]. Figure 4: INMARSAT Satellite System Coverage and Service Providers [3] Iridium Satellite System was proposed and developed by the Motorola Company in collaboration with a few other companies. This satellite has been purchase by the Iridium, Inc Company. In this satellite system, satellites are set into orbits in 6 different polar orbital planes with a total of 72 satellites at about 780 km above the earth surface [4]. Satellites are divided into groups of 11 with equal distance among them. These are all Low Earth Orbit Satellites. L-Band frequency band is used by mobile earth stations to access satellite link using TDMA or FDMA schemes. Access of the mobile stations need to be synchronized to enable them to transmit and receive in the same time frame slot. Each satellite can handle more than 1000 calls at a time. All the satellites can route traffic to each other as well. This satellite system is designed in such a way that global coverage is achieved and gateway stations, which need to be connected to public switched telephone network on earth, requir ed are less in number. Two other LEO satellites systems are ARIES and ELLIPSO which are set into circular orbits above the equator to provide low cost services. Another very well known satellite system is GLOBALSTAR system which provided full global connectivity. This system consists of 48 satellites divided into groups of 6. These satellites are set into orbit in eight different planes at 1414 km above the earth surface and are inclined at 45degrees and 135degrees to the equator. There is no exchange of data among these satellites as in the Iridium System. Therefore, a mobile earth station can only get access to the satellite link when the satellite has a line of sight path to the gateway earth station. Mobile stations can access the satellite using L-Band frequency band. Code division Multiple Access (CDMA) scheme is used to separate transmission of each mobile station. Six spot beams are used to cover the same geographical area on earth as is required by the Iridium satellite system. Satellites in GLOBALSTAR system complete their lifecycle between 5 to 15 years. OrbComm launched its first two satellites in 1995. This satellite system is capable of providing remote monitoring and mobile tracking along with many other commercial services. OrbComm also contains 48 satellites which are in Low Earth Orbits. Access by mobile earth stations to these satellites is made on VHF (very high Frequency) band. The uplink band is 148 MHz to 150 MHz and the downlink band is between 137 MHZ to 138 MHz. Signal and data transmitted from the satellites are not directly forwarded to hand held devices first, rather they are first diverted to the gateway station on earth or public switched telephone network and then they are forwarded to mobile handsets. Satellites in this system have a lifecycle of about four years. Intermediate Circular Orbit (ICO) satellite system consists of ten satellites with the help of which it can provide full global coverage. These satellites are divided into groups of five into two orbital planes at about 10,355 km above the earth surface. They orbit the earth the earth in about 6 hours serving a geographical area on earth for 20 minutes. Each satellite in the Intermediate Circular orbit can provide up to 4500 channels for voice data traffic and access to these channels is made secure and reliable by using the Code Division Multiple Accessing (CDMA) scheme. The terminals ICO systems are capable of supporting dual mode which means that they can operate with satellite and as well as public switched telephone networks. In this entire scenario, each type of satellite system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Geo-Stationary satellites can be useful for one form of mobile communication but in some scenarios it may be more feasible to use Low Earth Orbit satellite system. Like with the help of three Geo-Stationary satellites we can provide almost full global coverage. As the satellites remain at the same point above the earth in Geo-Stationary system, the transmitters and receivers can have the fixed antenna positions without the need to keep track of the satellite which at times can become a very tedious task. Because they are located at about 36000 km above the earth, they are less affected by the atmosphere around the earth during its orbit making its life cycle greater than the other satellite systems. On the other hand, there are certain disadvantages of the Geo-Stationary system as well. Besides almost having no coverage at the north and south poles, one of the biggest problems in this sys tem is performing voice and data communication over these satellites. Because they are far away from earth’s surface, there is very high latency or delay in the transmission and reception which makes it unfeasible for voice traffic. And also because of its large distance from earth’s surface, very high power antennas are required for these satellites which consumes a significant battery power. Moreover, sending a satellite into a Geo-stationary orbit from earth is very expensive as compared to other Low Earth Orbit satellites. While with the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite systems, transmission rates of about 2.4 kbps can carry out voice data communication efficiently. Because these satellites are orbiting the earth at much lower altitude as compared to Geo-Stationary satellites, transmission power required for the antennas is much less which in turn saves the overall battery power consumed. And for the same reason, the delay or latency in the transmission is much less which can compete with the wired cable terrestrial networks on earth. Higher elevation of these satellites to the equator enables are better coverage at the north and south poles. And also because the geographical area covered by one satellite in LEO system is smaller; frequency reuse policy can be best utilized. On the other hand, the very obvious and possibly the one of the biggest problem with this satellite system is the need to have a large number of satellites to provide global coverage. As the satellites in this system do not stay at a fixed position over the earth surface, their serving time geographical is only about 10 to 15 minutes which require very complex antenna mechanism on earth to keep track of the satellites. Another disadvantage of having low earth orbits is the very short lifetime of a satellite. Friction from earth’s surrounding atmosphere can severely effect the lifetime of a satellite in LEO satellite system. If a satellite mobile user is roaming around the world, providing global connectivity to that user also require interconnectivity of these large number of satellites. Mobile Communication Satellite Systems are evolving very quickly in this era to keep pace with the increasing demand of communication globally. The trend is shifting towards the LEO satellite systems from the Geo-Stationary satellite systems because of very less latency delays in LEO systems as far as voice data communication is concerned. However, these satellite systems cannot fully replace the need of terrestrial networks because of these systems are still very expensive for an average user and not all countries of the world are developed enough to cope up with these satellites systems. References: [1] Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications, Chapter 2, Michael John Ryan, University of New South Wales [2] Requirements for a Mobile Communications Satellite System. Volume 1: Executive summary, Final Report, 15 Dec. 1981 – 31 Mar. 1983, TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, CA. [3] The Use of Mobile Satellite Communications in Disaster Mitigation, Eugene I. Staffa, World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction Technical Committee Session C [4] The Past, Present and Future of Satellite Communications, John V. Evans How to cite Mobile Communication Satellite Systems, Essay examples

National and International Standards for Testing- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theNational and International Standards for Software Testing. Answer: Introduction The national and international standards of any product and service are considered important to assess their holistic safety, quality and reliability that is highly important for every buyer. Moreover, there are also some standards that are based on safety of people and these standards are related to road safety, toy safety and secure medical packaging etc. At government and regulators basis various new better regulations are being developed. Not only in other fields but also in IT field these standards are practiced by developers, testers and others who are related to this field. The purpose of making this report is to discuss about a national and international standard document for software testing. Here selected national standard document for software testing is about ANSI and international standard document is IEEE. I will discuss in detail about these standards for software testing in upcoming paragraphs. Response to Questions In past years, there was no comprehensive set available for software testing standards. But now there are some useful standards for software testing. Among those national and international standards ANSI and IEEE for software testing are important to discuss here in this report. A software is a product for a buyer and before selling that product its overall testing is mandatory to do at testers and as well as at developers end. This testing must be done according to ANSI and IEEE standards. Before using these standards fundamental knowledge about them is necessary. What is the standard name? The national standards ANSI for software testing stands for American National Standards Institute. It is a primary industrial standards body in United States of America. ANSI circulates some software related standards in combination with the IEEE and ASQ (Standards.ieee.org, 2017). On other side, international standards IEEE for software testing develops standards like Software Test Documentation, Software Unit Testing and Assurance for Software Quality. The full form of IEEE is Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (Indiver, 2016). Who holds the copyright for the standard? The copyrights of ANSI standards hold by American National Standards Institute. But if I talk about ANSI Online standards then no portion of these standards is under ANSI Inc. These online materials have their own original copyright owner. On contrary, the copyrights of IEEE are managed by its Intellectual Property Rights Office i.e. IPR Office. This department is responsible for all IEEE related copyright matters, its policies and procedures. For getting any information regarding IEEE copyrights and policies, authors and publications have to contact to IPR Office (Softwaretestinghelp.com, 2017). Universities Involved among Acknowledge Contributors In case of ANSI acknowledge contributors the involved universities are Colorado State University, University of Wisconsin and Cornell University. On flip side, in IEEE acknowledge contributors, Cambridge University and Harvard University are involved (Ansi.org, 2017). What is the Scope of the Standard? According to analysis about ANSI standards on software has wide scope that includes expansion up to recognition of Singapore Telecommunications Requirements. Moreover, due to ANSI standards duplication of testing of products have eliminated. On flip side, the scope of IEEE has been explored up to many areas such as Aerospace, Bioengineering, Computing Processing, Robotics and Control Systems and Nuclear Engineering and others (Softwaretestingstandard.org, 2017). Key Terms and Understandings about ANSI and IEEE Standards ANSI: ANSI is a private and non-profit organization and it co-ordinates U.S voluntary standards. The administration of development of U.S. standards and their approval is also done by ANSI. It provides means for the U.S to put impact on development of regional and international standards (org, 2017). The promotion of awareness of emerging strategic significance of some standard technologies in U.S global competitiveness is also done by ANSI standards. IEEE IEEE publishes scientific and technical literature. Moreover, it organizes conferences on appropriate technical and scientific matters (Tata, 2017). The technical standards are also developed by this standards and currently 900 standards are available. IEEE standards are able to identify the leaders of the profession. What does standard do? If I talk about ANSI standards then the main goal of this standard is to increase global attractiveness of U.S Business and quality of life of U.S Business. It is done by promoting and simplifying voluntary standards and assessment systems. Moreover, safeguard of integrity is also considered in promotion of standards. IEEE standards are dedicated to advanced technology for well-being of people. Its main purpose is to raise innovation at technological level. Besides this, this standard assess the excellence of products and services that is required by all potential customers. Specific Relevance of Standard to Software Testing If I talk about IEEE standards then there is no doubt to say that this standard is relevant for software testing. This standard specifies the form of a set of documents for eight stages of software testing and as well as for system testing. Different level of testing plans have defined by this IEEE standard such as Master Test Plan, Level Test Plan, Level Test Log and Anomaly Report etc. After completion of this whole testing process, software is considered to be error free (Ansi.org, 2017). On other side, ANSI standard is also relevant for software testing because it sets an appropriate environment for software testing. This environment includes assessment and improvement of software processes, development of meaningful test plans and proper organization of testing efforts. Furthermore, automation of test processes is also supported by ANSI standards. Comparison between the Standards Documents As I have selected two essential documents for national standards ANSI and international standards IEEE. Both documents consist of reliable information about how an efficient software testing can be implemented. Both documents have different sections that provide important information. After studying these documents I got to know several important aspects about ANSI and IEEE. Both standards are made to maintain the overall quality and efficiency of any product and service that is used by potential customers. As we know various frauds have conducted by hackers with software solutions and due to this heavy loss of information has faced by software users. To resolve this problem these software testing are developed that support all possible steps that should be implemented at testers end (Wilber, 2007). Commonalities between ANSI Document and IEEE Document There are some similarities among national standard ANSI document and international standard IEEE document. In both documents, national and international standards regarding software testing are defined appropriately. Following are some common factors among both documents. Outline: First of all, in papers introduction about both standards is given with their importance that why ANSI and IEEE are required. The historical data is also given about foundation of ANSI and IEEE standards. From these past records, it becomes easier to know about past efficiency of both standards (Ieee.org, 2017). Key Functions: This most important concept that I have seen in both documents is regarding key functions of standards that are important to know by its users. This is an essential information to understand both standards appropriately. Scope of Standards From this segment of documents, I got to know about scope of both standards. IEEE has wider scope than ANSI standards. There is no such field is left where IEEE is standard is not used. Software testing is one of the key areas where ANSI and IEEE, both standards are followed. Guidelines Before start using ANSI and IEEE standards for software testing purpose, their guidelines are necessary to consider. In both documents, standards guidelines are mentioned properly and these are easy to understand (Pedersen, Karen, 2013). Significant Differences in Standards Besides above discussed similarities among both standard documents, there are also some differences. The first difference is that in ANSI national standard document its principle activities are not mentioned. But in IEEE document, it is clearly defined that what principle activities are implemented by IEEE for handling software testing. In ANSI standard document, membership process of ANSI, accreditation services and international engagement regarding information is given. But in IEEE standard document this information is not mentioned. According IEEE standard document, there is requirement for testers who are able to dedicatedly improve their skills and also find new ways of testing. On other side, ANSI standards gives emphasize on this statement that a standard for software testing should be based on functional specifications and copyrighted source code is also required (Ieee.org, 2017). Furthermore, in IEEE standards document both new and old standards are defined clearly but in A NSI document it is not found. Conclusion In conclusion, both software testing standard documents provide important information. The given essential aspects regarding software testing should be followed by developers and testers. These both standards and other standards like ISO are made for better security and integrity of software solutions. As we know that software testing is important to get a bug free software and by using ANSI and IEEE standards developers and testers can obtain better outcomes. These standards are also helpful for solving problem of software testing techniques. References Tata, J. (2017).New Software Testing Standards - ISO/IEC/IEEE 29119.Evoke Technologies Blog. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.evoketechnologies.com/blog/new-software-testing-standards/ Indiver, S. (2016). New Soft Computing Techniques in the Software Testing.International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science. https://dx.doi.org/10.18535/ijecs/v5i12.64 Softwaretestinghelp.com. (2017). What is SEI? CMM? ISO? IEEE? ANSI standards? Software Testing Help. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/what-is-sei-cmm-iso-ieee-ansi-will-it-help/ Softwaretestingstandard.org.(2017). ISO/IEC/IEEE 29119 Software Testing Standard. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.softwaretestingstandard.org/29119petitionresponse.php Ieee.org. (2017). IEEE IEEE Copyright Policy. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/copyrightpolicy.html Ansi.org. (2017). ANSI Code of Ethics. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.ansi.org/publicstatements/codeofethics?menuid=1 Wilber, L. (2007). Standards News: Audiologists and ANSI Standards. Acoustics Today, 3(4), 30. https://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.2961160 Pedersen, Karen. (2013). Understanding IEEE. In-Service Workshop. Ansi.org. (2017). NIST Expands ANSIs Scope as Accreditor of Telecommunications Certification Bodies to Include Singapore Requirements. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.ansi.org/news_publications/news_story?menuid=7articleid=8f1dcf9f-d7c6-4908-bc15-5f7ed29b41ab Ieee.org. (2017). IEEE IEEE Standards. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.ieee.org/standards/index.html Bcs.org. (2017). Standards For Software Testing | The Tester | Specialist Group in Software Testing | Specialist Groups | Member groups | Membership | BCS - The Chartered Institute for IT. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://www.bcs.org/content/ConWebDoc/12416 Standards.ieee.org. (2017). IEEE-SA - The IEEE Standards Association - Home. Retrieved 31 August 2017, from https://standards.ieee.org/

Battle of Britain - World War II

Battle of Britain - World War II Battle of Britain: Conflict Dates The Battle of Britain was fought July 10 to late October 1940, during World War II. Commanders Royal Air Force Air Chief Marshal Hugh DowdingAir Vice Marshal Keith ParkAir Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-MalloryLuftwaffeReichsmarschall Hermann GÃ ¶ringField Marshal Albert KesselringField Marshal Hugo SperrleGeneraloberst Hans-JÃ ¼rgen Stumpff Battle of Britain: Background With the fall of France in June 1940, Britain alone was left to face the growing power of Nazi Germany. Though much of the British Expeditionary Force had been successfully evacuated from Dunkirk, it had been compelled to leave much of its heavy equipment behind. Not relishing the idea of having to invade Britain, Adolph Hitler initially hoped that Britain would sue for a negotiated peace. This hope quickly eroded as new Prime Minister Winston Churchill reasserted Britains commitment to fight on to the end. Reacting to this, Hitler ordered on July 16 that preparations begin for the invasion of Great Britain. Dubbed Operation Sea Lion, this plan called for an invasion to take place in August. As the Kriegsmarine had been badly reduced in earlier campaigns, a key prerequisite for the invasion was the elimination of the Royal Air Force to ensure that the Luftwaffe possessed air superiority over the Channel. With this in hand, the Luftwaffe would be able to hold the Royal Navy at bay as German troops landed in southern England. Battle of Britain: The Luftwaffe Prepares To eliminate the RAF, Hitler turned the chief of the Luftwaffe, Reichsmarschall Hermann GÃ ¶ring. A veteran of World War I, the flamboyant and boastful GÃ ¶ring had ably overseen the Luftwaffe during the early campaigns of the war. For the coming battle, he shifted his forces to bring three Luftflotten (Air Fleets) to bear on Britain. While Field Marshal Albert Kesselring and Field Marshal Hugo Sperrles Luftflotte 2 and 3 flew from the Low Countries and France, Generaloberst Hans-JÃ ¼rgen Stumpffs Luftflotte 5 would attack from bases in Norway. Largely designed to provide aerial support for the German Armys blitzkrieg style of attack, the Luftwaffe was not well-equipped for the type of strategic bombing that would be required in the coming campaign. Though its principal fighter, the Messerschmitt Bf 109, was equal to the best British fighters, the range at which it would be forced to operate limited the time it could spend over Britain. At the start of the battle, the Bf 109 was supported by the twin-engine Messerschmitt Bf 110. Intended as a long range escort fighter, the Bf 110 quickly proved vulnerable to the more nimble British fighters and was a failure in this role. Lacking a four-engine strategic bomber, the Luftwaffe relied on a trio of smaller twin-engine bombers, the Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 88, and the aging Dornier Do 17. These were supported by the single-engine Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber. An effective weapon in the wars early battles, the Stuka ultimately proved highly vulnerable to British fighters and was withdrawn from the fight. Battle of Britain: The Dowding System His Chicks Across the Channel, the aerial defense of Britain was entrusted to the head of Fighter Command, Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding. Possessing a prickly personality and nicknamed Stuffy, Dowding had taken over Fighter Command in 1936. Working tirelessly, he had overseen the development of the RAFs two frontline fighters, the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. While the latter was a match for the BF 109, the former was a bit outclassed but was capable of out-turning the German fighter. Anticipating the need for greater firepower, Dowding had both fighters outfitted with eight machine guns. Highly protective of his pilots, he often referred to them as his chicks. While understanding the need for new advanced fighters, Dowding was also key in recognizing that they could only be employed effectively if they were properly controlled from the ground. To this end, he supported the development of Radio Direction Finding (radar) and the creation of the Chain Home radar network. This new technology was incorporated into his Dowding System which saw the uniting of radar, ground observers, raid plotting, and radio control of aircraft. These disparate components were tied together through a protected telephone network that was administered through his headquarters at RAF Bentley Priory. In addition, to better control his aircraft, he divided the command into four groups to cover all of Britain (Map). These consisted of Air Vice Marshal Sir Quintin Brands 10 Group (Wales and the West Country), Air Vice Marshal Keith Parks 11 Group (Southeastern England), Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallorys 12 Group (Midland East Anglia), and Air Vice Marshal Richard Sauls 13 Group (Northern England, Scotland, Northern Ireland). Though scheduled to retire in June 1939, Dowding was asked to remain in his post until March 1940 due to the deteriorating international situation. His retirement was subsequently postponed until July and then October. Eager to preserve his strength, Dowding had vigorously opposed the sending of Hurricane squadrons across the Channel during the Battle of France. Battle of Britain: German Intelligence Failures As the bulk of Fighter Commands strength had been husbanded in Britain during the earlier fighting, the Luftwaffe had a poor estimate of its strength. As the battle began, GÃ ¶ring believed that the British had between 300-400 fighters when in actuality, Dowding possessed over 700. This led the German commander to believe that Fighter Command could be swept from the skies in four days. While the Luftwaffe was aware of the British radar system and ground control network, it dismissed their importance and believed that they created a inflexible tactical system for the British squadrons. In reality, the system permitted flexibility for squadron commanders to make appropriate decisions based on the most recent data. Battle of Britain: Tactics Based on intelligence estimates, GÃ ¶ring expected to quickly sweep Fighter Command from the skies over southeastern England. This was to be followed by a four-week bombing campaign which would begin with strikes against RAF airfields near the coast and then move progressively inland to hit the larger sector airfields. Additional strikes would target military targets as well as aircraft production facilities. As planning moved forward, the timetable was extended to five weeks from August 8 to September 15. During the course of the battle, a dispute over strategy emerged between Kesselring, who favored direct attacks on London to force the RAF into a decisive battle, and Sperrle who desired continued attacks on the British air defenses. This dispute would simmer without GÃ ¶ring making a clear choice. As the battle began, Hitler issued a directive prohibiting the bombing of London as he feared reprisal strikes against German cities. At Bentley Priory, Dowding decided the best way to utilize his aircraft and pilots was to avoid large scale battles in the air. Knowing that an aerial Trafalgar would allow the Germans to more accurately gauge his strength, he intended to bluff the enemy by attacking in squadron strength. Aware that he was outnumbered and could not completely prevent the bombing of Britain, Dowding sought to inflict an unsustainable rate of loss on the Luftwaffe. To accomplish this, he wanted the Germans to constantly believe that Fighter Command was at the end of its resources to ensure that it kept attacking and taking losses. This was not the most popular course of action and it was not entirely to the Air Ministrys pleasing, but Dowding understood that as long as Fighter Command remained a threat the German invasion could not move forward. In instructing his pilots, he emphasized that they were go after the German bombers and avoid fighter-to-fighter combat when possible. Also, he wished the figh ting to take place over Britain as pilots who were shot down could be quickly recovered and returned to their squadrons. Battle of Britain: Der Kanalkampf Fighting first began on July 10 as the Royal Air Force and Luftwaffe skirmished over the Channel. Dubbed the Kanalkampf or Channel Battles, these engagements saw German Stukas attacking British coastal convoys. Though Dowding would have preferred to halt the convoys rather than waste pilots and planes defending them, he was blocked from above by Churchill and the Royal Navy who refused to symbolically cede control of the Channel. As the fight continued, the Germans introduced their twin-engine bombers which were escorted by Messerschmitt fighters. Due to the proximity of the German airfields to the coast, the fighters of No. 11 Group often did not sufficient warning in order to block these attacks. As a result, Parks fighters were required to conduct patrols which strained both pilots and equipment. The fighting over the Channel provided a training ground for both sides as they prepared for the larger battle to come. During June and July, Fighter Command lost 96 aircraft while downin g 227. Battle of Britain: Adlerangriff The small numbers of British fighters that his aircraft had encountered in July and early August further convinced GÃ ¶ring that Fighter Command was operating with around 300-400 aircraft. Having prepared for a massive aerial offensive, dubbed Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack), he sought four uninterrupted days of clear weather in which to begin it. Some initial attacks began on August 12 which saw German aircraft cause minor damage to several coastal airfields as well as attack four radar stations. Attempting to hit the tall radar towers rather than the more important plotting huts and operations centers, the strikes did little lasting damage. In the bombing, the radar plotters from the Womens Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) proved their mettle as they continued working with bombs bursting nearby. British fighters downed 31 Germans for a loss of 22 of their own. Believing that they had caused significant damage on August 12, the Germans began their offensive the next day, which was dubbed Adler Tag (Eagle Day). Beginning with a series of muddled attacks in the morning due to confused orders, the afternoon saw larger raids strike a variety of targets across southern Britain, but inflict little lasting damage. Raids continued on and off the next day, opposed in squadron strength by Fighter Command. For August 15, the Germans planned their largest attack to date, with Luftflotte 5 attacking targets in northern Britain, while Kesselring and Sperrle assaulted the south. This plan was based on the incorrect belief that No. 12 Group had been feeding reinforcements south over the preceding days and could be prevented from doing so by attacking the Midlands. Detected while far out at sea, the aircraft of Luftflotte 5 were essentially unescorted as the flight from Norway precluded using Bf 109s as escorts. Assaulted by fighters from No. 13 Group, the attackers were turned back with heavy losses and accomplished little of consequence. Luftflotte 5 would not play a further role in the battle. In the south, RAF airfields were hit hard taking varying degrees of damage. Flying sortie after sortie, Parks men, supported by No. 12 Group, struggled to meet the threat. In the course of the fighting, German aircraft accidently struck RAF Croydon in London, killing over 70 civilians in the process and enraging Hitler. When the day ended, Fighter Command had downed 75 Germans in exchange for 34 aircraft and 18 pilots. Heavy German raids continued the next day with weather largely halting operations on the 17th. Resuming on August 18, the fighting saw both sides take their highest losses of the battle (British 26 [10 pilots], German 71). Dubbed the Hardest Day, the 18th saw massive raids hit the sector airfields at Biggin Hill and Kenley. In both cases, the damage proved temporary and operations were not dramatically affected. Battle of Britain: A Change in Approach In the wake of the August 18 attacks, it became clear that GÃ ¶rings promise to Hitler to quickly sweep aside the RAF would not be fulfilled. As a result, Operation Sea Lion was postponed until September 17. Also, due to the high losses taken on the 18th, the Ju 87 Stuka was withdrawn from the battle and the role of the Bf 110 reduced. Future raids were to focus on Fighter Command airfields and factories at the exclusion of everything else, including the radar stations. In addition, German fighters were ordered to tightly escort the bombers rather than conducting sweeps. Battle of Britain: Dissention in the Ranks During the course of the fighting a debate emerged between Park and Leigh-Mallory regarding tactics. While Park favored Dowdings method of intercepting raids with individual squadrons and subjecting them to continued attack, Leigh-Mallory advocated for massed attacks by Big Wings consisting of at least three squadrons. The thought behind the Big Wing was that a larger number of fighters would increase enemy losses while minimizing RAF casualties. Opponents pointed out that it took longer for Big Wings to form and increased the danger of fighters being caught on the ground re-fueling. Dowding proved unable to resolve the differences between his commanders, as he preferred Parks methods while the Air Ministry favored the Big Wing approach. This issue was worsened by personal issues between Park and Leigh-Mallory in regard to No. 12 Group supporting No. 11 Group. Battle of Britain: The Fighting Continues The renewed German attacks soon began with factories being hit on August 23 and 24. On the latter evening, parts of Londons East End were hit, possibly by accident. In reprisal, RAF bombers struck Berlin on the night August 25/26. This greatly embarrassed GÃ ¶ring who had previously boasted that the city would never be attacked. Over the next two weeks, Parks group was severely pressed as Kesselrings aircraft conducted 24 heavy raids against their airfields. While British aircraft production and repair, overseen by Lord Beaverbrook, was keeping pace with losses, Dowding soon began to face a crisis regarding pilots. This was alleviated by transfers from other branches of service as well as the activation of Czech, French, and Polish squadrons. Fighting for their occupied homes, these foreign pilots proved highly effective. They were joined by individual pilots from throughout the Commonwealth, as well as the United States. The critical phase of the battle, Parks men struggled to keep their fields operational as losses mounted in the air and on the ground. September 1 saw the one day during the fighting where British losses exceeded the Germans. In addition, German bombers began targeting London and other cities in early September as retribution for continued raids on Berlin. On September 3, GÃ ¶ring began planning daily raids on London. Despite their best efforts, the Germans were unable to eliminate Fighter Commands presence in the skies over southeastern England. While Parks airfields remained operable, an overestimation of German strength led some to conclude that another two weeks of similar attacks might force No. 11 Group to fall back. Battle of Britain: A Key Change On September 5, Hitler issued orders that London and other British cities be attacked without mercy. This signaled a key strategic change as the Luftwaffe ceased hitting the beleaguered airfields and focused on the cities. Giving Fighter Command a chance to recover, Dowdings men were able to make repairs and prepare for the next onslaught. On September 7, nearly 400 bombers attacked the East End. While Parks men engaged the bombers, No. 12 Groups first official Big Wing missed the fight as it took too long to form up. Eight days later, the Luftwaffe attacked in force with two massive raids. These were met by Fighter Command and decisively defeated with 60 German aircraft downed against 26 British. With the Luftwaffe having sustained massive losses in the previous two months, Hitler was forced to indefinitely postpone Operation Sea Lion on September 17. With their squadrons depleted, GÃ ¶ring oversaw a switch from daytime to nighttime bombing. Regular daytime bombing began to cease i n October though the worst of the Blitz was to begin later that autumn. Battle of Britain: Aftermath As the raids began to dissipate and autumn storms started to plague the Channel, it became clear that the threat of invasion had been averted. This was reinforced by intelligence showing that the German invasion barges which had been gathered in the Channel ports were being dispersed. The first significant defeat for Hitler, the Battle of Britain ensured that Britain would continue the fight against Germany. A boost for Allied morale, the victory helped cause a shift in international opinion in favor of their cause. In the fighting, the British lost 1,547 aircraft with 544 killed. Luftwaffe losses totaled 1,887 aircraft and 2,698 killed. During the battle, Dowding was criticized by Vice Marshal William Sholto Douglas, Assistant Chief of Air Staff, and Leigh-Mallory for being too cautious. Both men felt that Fighter Command should be intercepting raids before they reached Britain. Dowding dismissed this approach as he believed it would increase losses in aircrew. Though Dowdings approach and tactics proved correct for achieving victory, he was increasingly seen as uncooperative and difficult by his superiors. With the appointment of Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, Dowding was removed from Fighter Command in November 1940, shortly after winning the battle. As an ally of Dowding, Park was also removed and reassigned with Leigh-Mallory taking over No. 11 Group. Despite the political infighting that plagued the RAF following the battle, Winston Churchill accurately summarized the contribution of Dowdings chicks in an address to the House of Commons during the height of the fighting by stating, Never in the field of huma n conflict was so much owed by so many to so few. Selected Sources Royal Air Force: The Battle of BritainImperial War Museum: Battle of BritainKorda, Michael. (2009). With Wings Like Eagles: A History of the Battle of Britain. New York: HarperCollins

Big Bang Theory Development Research Paper Example

Big Bang Theory Development Research Paper Example Big Bang Theory Development Paper Big Bang Theory Development Paper The Theory of the Big Bang started from observations and scientific facts. The Big Bang theory provinces that after the Big Bang the existence expanded from its original pea-sized beginning to astronomical proportions. and the enlargement of the existence still continues today but at a much slower rate. In the 20th century many scientific developments were made by scientists that contributed to the creative activity of the Big Bang Theory. In 1910 Vesto Slipher was the first individual to detect displacements in spectral lines in galaxies. What he had discovered was the galactic red shifts. A galactic red shift is a supplanting of spectral lines toward longer wavelengths. What Slipher specifically observed was that the spectral lines of many nebulas exhibited a ruddy displacement that indicated gesture off from planet Earth. Around 1912 Carl Wilhelm Wirtz like Vesto Slipher observed a systematic red shift of nebulae. While detecting the red shift he came to the decision that relative to the present location of the solar system the coiling nebulae is traveling off from the solar system. He subsequently discovered that it is traveling off from the solar system at 656 kilometres per second. This provided experimental grounds that the existence was spread outing. In 1916 Albert Einstein published his Theory of General relativity. The General relativity Theory states that gravity arises from the curvature of infinite and clip. It besides said that the existence was either undertaking or spread outing. Today the theory is used to depict gravity in natural philosophies. Einstein’s theory was influential to the development of the Big Bang theory because it created the cosmogonic invariable. Alexander Friedmann used Einstein’s theory in order to come up with his ain findings. He applied general relativity to cosmology without utilizing the cosmogonic invariable. He found solutions to field equations that created the preliminary work of the Big Bang Theory. His solutions created the Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker Universe. Friedmann’s work was important to the promotion of the Big Bang Theory because his work showed that it is possibility of a altering existence. Georges Lemaitre stated that the existence began with an detonation of a aboriginal atom in 1927. This thought was subsequently called the Big Bang. Lemaitre used the Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker Universe and Einstein’s General Relativity as a base to his hypothesis. With his hypothesis he created a theoretical account of the existence to detect the displacements in the Spiral Nebulae. With this theoretical account he was able to turn out that the existence was in fact spread outing. Edwin Hubble discovered that other galaxies exist other than the Milky Way Galaxy. With this find it made the possibility of a Bang more plausible. In 1929 Edwin Hubble published Hubble’s Law . This jurisprudence states that the recession speed of a distant extragalactic object is straight relative to its distance. His observation concluded that the existence was one time compacted affair. His jurisprudence led to the creative activity of the Big Bang Model. All of these scientists contributed to the creative activity to the Big Bang theory. as we know it is to be today. Many of these scientists used each other’s work I order to progress or explicate their ain observations or findings. Even though these scientists were finally able to explicate the procedure of the Big Bang they were non successful in clear uping why the Big Bang occurred.

Reflecting on critique Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reflecting on critique - Assignment Example We try to freeze the moment with the help of photography, capture the history that is why photography is something that shows us what happened and will never repeat again. That is why the art of photography as a genre is complicated in terms of time, authenticity, and artistic value. Photographic image is completely different from all the other types of images as it possesses great power and potency. It is capable of telling a story, serving as the evidence of the event or a person and at the same time retrieved from the context it can become a pure visual form. Traditionally photography served as a means of documentation of social and family life, and as soon as it appeared it became a privilege of certain classes. For a long time any portrait photography remained a luxury, an exclusive thing, a product that emphasized social status first of all and was affordable only to higher classes of society. Miniature or big family portraits adorned bedrooms of those who could afford going to salons to take a picture (Tagg, 1988, 53). In a broader sense documentary photography aimed to depict such events and circumstances that were inaccessible or not easily accessible. Documentary photography flourished during historically important events initially, such as American Civil War for instance, when whole photography archives were created. That type of photography was based on the principle of objectivity and trustfulness, and photography was and still remains a means of information transfer for a long time. With media empowering photojournalism became a separate type of documentation based on the capacity to demonstrate the information that is unknown or hidden (Stapp, 2007, 691). Later photography became a pure visual art in which depiction of reality and its documentation has lost its primary significance. Fashion, travelling magazines made artistic photography goods for selling. Photography has turned into a product as people learned how to evoke the

Statistical Tests Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Statistical Tests - Essay Example When and if the researcher would test the boys before and after treatment for depression this would skew the two tests and the results would be more positive for the treatment would affect the outcome of the second test. The first test when the boys were depressed they would not put all their thinking skills into doing an honest job for the way they are feeling at that time. When testing boys and girls with depression the researcher must take into consideration other circumstances into performing the test. The repeated measures test is still the best t-test to use for this test will give the researcher a better look at the emotions of the boys through observation while performing the test. They can also observe facial and body movements of the participants. In all psychological testing researchers must strive for validity and to make sure the criteria is met before performing the test along with the reliability of the results found. The researcher can also use the single sample t-test when checking the boys after treatment they received for depression. They also need to find the degrees of freedom dealing with the participants from the previous sample. The researchers could also perform a paired samples t-test between the girls and the boys to see about levels of self esteem and with the paired samples t-test this is when Cohen’s d is used. The tester will also need to calculate the effect size and get the sample mean difference. When testers give these types of tests they should make sure that they are appropriate, meaningful and useful. (Gregory, 2004) When dealing with the statistics and the t-test researchers should strive to make ideas relevant to the test that is being performed. When considering which test or tests to be done one find the correct charts to make the necessary calculations. When researchers commit to doing this

PYS60 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

PYS60 - Essay Example Python is based on C and will heavily rely on the C libraries that can be imported, though it has a perfect fit with UNIX, POSIX and Linux languages. The program was developed in 1991 by Rossums van Guido based on lessons that he had leant in the course of operating system support and language processes (Scheibe and Tuulos, 2). The main advantage of the language is that it is an open system that offers access to Operating System (OS) services making it possible to create and develop high level solutions based on other already built programs. As such, the program allows a perfect integration with existing applications or programs and perfect processing all together. Some of the features that make the program the choice for many include its security, dynamism, portability, ease of interpretation, multithread, robustness among others. This explains the high performance of mobile phones that use Python, such as the Nokia N97 in image stabilization and improved processor performance to ha ndle AR applications with at a high degree  of  fineness. Python uses in mobile devices Today, as development of the digital gadgets increases, mobile phone penetration has increased tremendously in the last one decade. Currently, there is over 50% penetration around the globe, a figure estimated to hit 70% mark by 2010 (Kerr, Thinyane & Foster, 80). As a result, the power of mobile phone hardware has improved in power and usability, which calls for the robust interfaces to complement mobile phone hardware. The mobile phone usability and speeds depend on its processor with faster processors allowing high speed image processing, which is closely related to a variety of other services. These services  include  the ability to detect motions, high speed processing during mobile games and improvement of  processor speeds when handling  demanding applications. Consequently, most phones built on Symbian OS series 60 have the ability to clock a speed of 434MHz, a good example be ing Nokia N97 and some PC’s that can clock a 1GHz speed (Kerr, Thinyane & Foster, 80). The major advantage of Python use in mobile phone platforms is its ability to ensure powerful Augmented Reality (AR) applications. Development of applications is usually a complex task. However, the use of Python as the main language has proved to make the process much easier. Smartphones are today powerful enough to run AR applications and have the ability to undertake threaded processing and have the needed hardware resources, which include connectivity capability and inbuilt cameras. As a result, Python is the best programming language to addresses the development issues that are usually complex in mobile programming when integrated with the mobile software platform (Kerr, Thinyane & Foster, 80). In other words, in mobile phones, Python readily supports object-oriented programming, multiple inheritances, name spaces among other flexible language properties and offers a high level integra ted language despite its simple structure (Soares, 3). Python use in mobile platforms has improved due to the ability to speed up and make simple Virtual Reality (VR) and AR processes in all desktop applications. For instance in the recent development, Nokia Company imported Python to their Symbian OS for the S60 platform (PyS60), an approach that made it possible to extend by C++ and offer the right of access to the S60 native features. The main advantage of the

Theory of Social Darwinism and the Impacts on Indigenous Australians

Theory of Social Darwinism and the Impacts on Indigenous Australians Social Darwinism is a social theory that Natural Selection in Darwins Theory is used to human society. Social Darwinism is evaluated from Darwins Theory. However, Social Darwinism is a belief and it is popular in the late Victorian ear in England, America and elsewhere. The purpose of this essay is to analyze the theory of Social Darwinism and its impacts on indigenous Australians. This essay will firstly have a brief introduction. Following it, it will discuss the theory of Social Darwinism. After that, it will explain the impact of Social Darwinism on indigenous Australians. Finally, it will be a conclusion of the essay. Theory of Social Darwinism The theory of Social Darwinism was put forward by Herbert Spencer in 19th century. Social Darwinism is the general term which applies to several different ways in which people (not biologists) tried to apply a distorted and narrow interpretation of the concept of natural selection to human cultural systems. (Peter, 2003) The popularity of Social Darwinism lasted from 19th century to World War II. Some people even think modern biology can be classified into Social Darwinism. The concept of Social Darwinism firstly appeared in American Historian Richard Hofstadters book in 1944> (Thomas, 2009) Social Darwinism is a kind of concept. This concept thinks that the core of Darwinism-natural selection is a common phenomenon in the human society. Theory of Social Darwinism thinks that natural selection plays an important role in the human evolution and development. Social Darwinism has ever been used by its supporters to name on the social inequality, racism and imperialism. Social Darwinism itself is not a political tendency.Some Social Darwinists use this concept to illustrate the social progress and inevitable change. Some Social Darwinists think that human degradation is inevitable. As the same as Theory of Evolution, Social Darwinism is usually involved in the debate on Eugenics. Social Darwinism also derived some concepts, including competition, eugenics and racism. Competition A simplified view of Social Darwinism is that people, especially for men, have to compete to survive in the future. They can not give any assistance to the poor because they must feed themselves. Most of Social Darwinism in 21st century supports the improvement of working conditions and higher wages in order to give the poor the opportunity to feed themselves, so that self-sufficiency is better than those who are lazy, weak or poor. Eugenics Another social interpretation of Social Darwinism is Eugenics. This theory is developed by Darwins cousin, Francis Galton. Galton believes that peoples physical characteristics are significantly from generation to generation. Therefore, the human brain qualities (genius and talent) have the same principle. Then the community should have a clear genetic decision to improve eugenics. Racism The racial superiority and competition ideology in the end of 19 century and early of 20 century are associated with Social Darwinism. The basic race concept of Social Darwinism is that white race should educate other races of people in the world by a civilized way. Darwins Evolution Theory divides the race on the basis of Genetic Bifurcation and Natural Selection Theory. Genetic Bifurcation is a group of genetic material which isolated with each other, so they can develop its own unique genetic characteristics. This theory is applies to all living organisms. Because of gene bifurcation, people have different races and ethnic groups. Impacts on of Social Darwinism on indigenous Australians Theories of Social Darwinism brought the disaster to indigenous Australians. Australian continent appeared before 60, 000 years ago. Most of the indigenous Australians were isolated from the rest of world before Europe settled in Australia. After the settlement of British, population of indigenous Australians reduced by 90%, which is also influenced by Social Darwinism. In the early of the twentieth century, Social Darwinism was also popular in Australia. The Racial Theories of Social Darwinism were used to justify settler treatment of the indigenous Australians, as subhuman, primitive and an inferior race. Social Darwinism accelerated the death of indigenous Australians. As the skin color of indigenous Australians is similar to black, people are easy to link them to Blacks. Racism discrimination emerged with the popularity of Social Darwinism. The Aborigines Protection Act 1909 established camps to provide a place for the doomed race to die off as indigenous Australian would inevitably become extinct. (Eleanor, 2002) Even cruel is that indigenous Australians were treated like experimental animals, which were allowed by settle policy. Between 1920 and 1930, thousands of indigenous Australians were used to scientific investigation into brain capacity and cranium size. Australian fascination with eugenics is similar to the obsession of Nazi Germany so ciety in relation to the Jews in the 1930s and early 1940s. (Geoffrey, 2004) Eugenics Theory of Social Darwinism also impacted on indigenous Australians. Children of mixed indigenous Australians and Europeans descent were called half-castes and a threat to so-called racial purity. (Dickens, 2000) According to the Eugenics Theory, the policy took these children far away from their parents to breed the blackness out of them. Based on Eugenics Theory, about 100,000 children with indigenous blood were taken away from their families. Parents did not know where they children were and were not allowed to trace them. At the same time, these children did not know who were their parents and thought they were orphans. The racist government thought the problem could be solved if indigenous Australians were dying out. As a result, these children were called Stolen Generations. Settler policy believed that white, Christian families and boarding schools was the best environment in which to raise Aboriginal children. They believed they were doing what was protecting them and was best for them, whether the children or their parents liked it or not. (Read, 2001) Conclusion Conclusively, Social Darwinism is a popular social evolution theory in 19 century. The theory itself did not contain any political position and it has ever been linked with politics. Influenced by the theories of Social Darwinism, many indigenous Australians were treated cruel and populations of indigenous Australians were reduced very much. Today, indigenous Australians share equal rights with other racial people in spite of existence of racial discrimination. It is wished that the world could eliminate the racial discrimination in future and every person could be treated equally.

The Cloning Debate :: Cloning Argumentative Persuasive Argument

The Cloning Debate      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first attempt in cloning was conducted in 1952 on a group of frogs. The experiment was a partial success.   The frog cells were cloned into other living frogs however, only one in every thousand developed normally , all of which were sterile. The rest of the frogs that survived grew to abnormally large sizes.  Ã‚   In 1993, scientist and director of the in vitro lab at George Washington University, Jerry Hall and associate Robert Stillman, reported the first ever successful cloning of human embryos.   It was the discovery of in- vitro fertilization in the 1940’s that began the pursuit to ease the suffering of infertile couples.   After years of research, scientists learned that "in a typical in-vitro procedure, doctors will insert three to five embryos in hopes that, at most, one or two will implant" (Elmer-Dewitt 38).   And that "a woman with only one embryo has about a 10% to 20% chance of getting pregnant through in-vitro fertilization.   If that embryo could be cloned and turned into three or four, thechances of a successful pregnancy would increase significantly"(Elmer- Dewitt 38).      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The experiment the scientists performed is the equivalent of a mother producing twins.   The process has been practiced and almost perfected in livestock for the past ten years, and some scientists believe that it seems only logical that it would be the next step in in-vitro fertilization.   The procedure was remarkably simple.   Hall and Stillman "selected embryos that were abnormal because they came from eggs that had been fertilized by more than one sperm" (Elmer-Dewitt 38), because the embryos were defective, it would have been impossible for the scientist to actually clone another person.   They did however, split the embryos into separate cells, as a result creating separate and identical clones.   They began experimenting on seventeen of the defective embryos and "when one of those single-celled embryos divided   into two cell†¦the scientists quickly separated the cells, creating two different embryos with the same genetic information" (Elmer-Dewitt 38).   The cells are coated with a protective covering "called a zona pellucida, that is essential to development" (Elmer-Dewitt 38), which was stripped away and replaced with a gel-like substance made from seaweed that Hall had been experimenting with.   The scientists were able to produce forty-eight clones, all of which died within six days.   Other scientist have been quoted saying that although the experiment is fairly uncomplicated, it had not been tested before because of the moral and ethical issues surrounding an experiment such as this one.   Some people believe that aiding infertile couples is the only true benefit to cloning human embryos,

Diet Plan

The diet plan presented puts a heavy emphasis on protein. High protein diets are typically successful for people who desire to lose weight. However, twenty-five years of nutritional research suggests that high protein diets include higher intakes of cholesterol and saturated fat. Further, nutritional research suggests that overall consumption of fat and sugar be drastically reduced. In order to achieve such a diet, it is necessary to increase overall consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables and the same time.Therefore, it is currently recommended that human diets comprise mainly of whole grains, fruits, vegetables and lean meat and dairy. Despite this recommendation, the most popular diet in America remains the low carbohydrate, high protein Atkins diet. The reason this diet is so popular is because it can truly enable human beings to lose weight. The danger in eating according to this, or any other high protein diet, is a lack in adequate nutrition gained from eating a var iety of foods within all food groups.A scientific analysis of this particular diet is offered in order to show that it may enable a person to lose weight but it is not a healthy diet. The main premise behind high protein diets is that they allow a dieter to feel full for a longer period of time. Therefore, it can be assumed that if the dieter felt full they would eat less overall. Restricting overall calorie intake is an important part of any diet plan, but adhering to a high protein diet only ensures that dieters are eating far too much cholesterol and saturated fat and not enough healthy carbohydrates.The diet being analyzed here puts too much emphasis on protein and not enough emphasis on whole grains, fruits, vegetables and lean dairy. For example, almost every lunch and dinner meal includes eggs or meat. While eggs and meat are certainly healthy, they should not make up the majority of any diet. Further, the diet being analyzed includes some fruits and vegetables but not enough servings to reach recommended guidelines. There are many days where fruit is not included at all within the diet. Similarly, a variety of fruits and vegetables are not included.The emphasis on vegetables is carrots and lettuce with a few servings of spinach and one serving of broccoli. There is not an inclusion of any whole grains with the exception of toast for breakfast on one day. However, it is not clear what type of bread is used for the toast. Finally, there are only two examples of low fat dairy included in the diet plan, which are cottage cheese and yogurt. It has been well documented that human beings must rely on a well balanced diet that includes lean protein as well as enough servings of other foods so that adequate vitamin and mineral intake can be maintained.Plant based foods are particularly important because they contain the majority of vitamins, minerals and trace elements necessary to maintain good health. Plant based foods also contain a wide range of antioxidant s which boost the overall immune system and protect humans from certain illnesses and disease. Therefore, research emphasizes that a healthy diet â€Å"prevents nutrient deficiencies, reduces risks of diet related chronic diseases and is composed of foods that are safe and palatable. † The diet plan analyzed here is lacking in several areas.The first is the high concentration of protein. Consuming such high amounts of protein does meet the goal of making a person feel fuller for a longer period of time. At the same time, it also restricts the amount of other foods that are eaten. In order to prevent nutrient deficiencies and reduce the chance of chronic illness this diet would need to include a much higher concentration of plant based foods such as fruits, vegetables and those made with whole grains. Further, the food one eats must be palatable in order to ensure success.This diet relies on the same foods over and over again which will only result in boredom and the inability to stick with the diet. Overall, the diet should include a wider variety of foods from all food groups in order to ensure adequate nutrition as well as the desire to continue with the diet for the long term. The United Kingdom relies on the Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients when showing the importance of eating a wide variety of foods in order to get enough of all the recommended vitamins, nutrients and trace minerals necessary for health.These guidelines are published in order to ensure that the majority of the population understands what they need to consume in order maintain good health. This diet does not meet these guidelines in many areas and cannot be considered a healthy and safe diet. For example, these guidelines recommend that adults consume at least 200 micrograms of folate every day for optimum health. However, folate is primarily found in plant based foods. This diet does not include enough plant foods to ensure adequate intake of folate.Similarly , these guidelines recommend that adults consume at least 600 micrograms of Vitamin A each day. Again, this diet includes carrots, which is a good source of Vitamin A, but only on a few days. Therefore, those following this diet plan would also be lacking in Vitamin A. Ultimately, this diet plan can guarantee weight loss but it cannot guarantee optimum health. It would be recommended that dieters consume less protein and more whole grains, fruits, vegetables and lean dairy.

Conflicting Emotions in Neil Simons The Odd Couple essays

Conflicting Emotions in Neil Simon's The Odd Couple essays The mood and tone of The Odd Couple is very contrasting, to say the least. There is always conflicting emotions going on at once which help the work as whole. There are a handful of moods, each of which goes very deep into the movie's plot. Some of these scenes contain multiple moods, such a happy, sad, depressed, and humorous. The Odd Couple evokes many emotions from the viewer, and places significance on certain events to help the work Starting with the beginning of the movie, the scene starts out dark and with a sad beat. It is set in downtown New York, at nighttime. Felix is a lone man, walking without a purpose; the camera is panned out to show dozens of couples around him, having fun. This part of the scene alone invokes a lot of emotion. The gloominess of the scene itself says a lot, as it gives the viewer a sad emotion from the start. Felix walking along the streets of New York alone also gives the viewer a feeling of depression, as they see Felix roam the streets, obviously a man in great distress. As he is walking, an experienced viewer can notice that since the streets of New York are riddled with couples, having fun and enjoying themselves and it can contrast Felix's depressed mood by showing the happy, couples, then you see the distressed Felix, whose wife had just divorced him. It doesn't say that he is depressed directly, but by analyzing the tone of it, with his shoulders slouched, and his face has a look of misery on it. His tie is slightly undone, as if he's been through a long day. He walks without a purpose, leading the viewer in with curiosity to find out why Felix is so depressed. The lighting adds to his mood, mirroring it. The next scene that evokes emotion from the viewer is when Felix is walking to his room. As he is slowly lumbers in, the cleaning lady says goodnight, and he says goodbye, with a look of deep remorse on his face. This furthers the concern fo...

History of the laptop essays

History of the laptop essays Todays portable laptop computers have come along way since the Big oversized machines of the early eighties. The laptop has become very popular over the years and may soon be used more often than desktop computers. The idea of the laptop came was thought up by a man named Alan Kay. Alan Kay imagined a laptop sized portable computer which he called the Dynabook which would have wireless network capabilities, excellent color graphics and tremendous computing power. Alan convinced the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center to fund a laboratory to put his idea into action. Eventually, he put together the best hardware prototype of the Dynabook that he could with the available technology present. He called the prototype, "The Alto", which had bitmapped display, mouse and network connectivity and could be considered the prototype for the modern miny computer. He also had plans to design software to make it all usable. He choose choose school children as his test audience in which he did a series of experiments then followed up by analysing people actually using the system. His result was Smalltalk which was used with the new Xerox Star computer which unfortunately for him, turned out to be a failure. Some consider the IBM 5100 to be the first portable computer. The 5100 weighed 50lbs and was available in 12 models which varied in memory from 16kb to 64kb. Prices for these machines went up to almost $20,000, but only 6 months after introduction the IBM 5100 went out of production. The first real laptop computer was designed in 1979 by William Moggridge of Grid Systems Corp. These 340K memory machines recently fetched in $800.00 at auction. In 1981 Adam Osborne released the first commercially successful portable computer onto the market in which he called the Osborne 1. This machine was equiped with it's own software and operating system, had a keyboard, two floppy drives and a very smal l screen, barely 5 inches in width. ...

Avalon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Avalon - Essay Example Census Bureau 2000). The city's population is only about 3,500 according to the US population census in 2000. About 719 families live in the city composed of about 1,158 households at an average density of 252.7/km (654.2/mi) and 1,839 housing units. Population density is estimated at 429.7/km (1,112.4/mi). The racial composition of the city includes 71.63% White, 0.74% Black 1.02% Native American, 0.61% Asian, 0.22% Pacific Islander, 20.37% from other races, and 5.40% from two or more races. 45.95% of the population are of Hispanic or Latino background. Out of 1,158 households, 38.3% had children below the age of 18 residing with them; 44.0% of these are married couples; 11.2% had a single female householder, and 37.9% are considered non-families. Of these households, 31.3% are individuals living independently and 10.3% are 65 years of age or older living alone. The estimated average household size is about 2.65 and the average family size is about 3.38 (U.S. Census Bureau 2000). Avalon City's population is quite diffused with 30.3% of the population below 18 years of age. 7.7% are from the age of 18 to 24. The population is also comprised of 30.2% of individuals ages 25 to 44, 21.7% of these are aged 45 to 64, and only about 10.1% are 65 years of age or older. 34 years old is the median age. ... The city's per capita income is recorded at about $21,032. 9.2% of families and 10.4% of the population live below the poverty line, which includes 11.5% of the residents under the age of 18. About 4.6% of individuals age of 65 or above live under the poverty level (U.S. Census Bureau 2000). There are various factors that will clearly affect both the expenses and revenues of the city of Avalon. First, it is apparent that about 4.5 percent to 10 percent of the ageing population is dependent on the city's health care systems. Second, employed residents constitute about 74.5. This percentage is high as compared to the national employment of about 63 percent. However, the city needs to consider the population living below the poverty level, which comprise mostly of the younger individuals. The city government then, needs prudence on planning which type of program to implement as the pattern of population is quite diffused and spread out. The target of poverty alleviation measures would be the young mostly, comprising of about 11.5 percent. Families who live below poverty level are estimated at 9.2 and individuals below poverty level, 10.4. The unemployment rate in Avalon is quite high at about 5.20 percent as compared to the US average of 4.60%. About 50 percent of the unemp loyed are of African descent and 8 percent are Hispanics. Although Avalon jobs have augmented by 3.35 percent, per capita is lower compared to the national figures. As of the last census, Avalon per capita stands at $21,032 dollars as compared with $21,587 national per capita. Hence, the Avalon government must increase its efforts to curb unemployment and increase income of the population. Job generation

European Parliament elections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

European Parliament elections - Essay Example European Parliament elections Integration processes get their legal implementation through variety of agreements between states on creation of various unions and organisations. European Union belongs to such organisations. One of the basic structures of this organization is the European Parliament. According to the EU legislation it represents people of European Union member-states, â€Å"the European Parliament represents the people of the states brought together within the European Community† (Fouloy, 1994, p. 77). The agreement, which assumed the creation of joint Parliament of the signatory states, was a part of the Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, which begun the European Union. The first European parliament consisted of 68 deputies delegated by national parliaments of the signatory states of the agreement. The first meeting, in which 142 deputies have taken part, has passed in March, 1958 in Strasburg, during which parliament has got the name â€Å"The European Parliamentary Assembly†, which in March, 1968 has turned in the European Parliament. For today the European Parliament consists of representative of 25 member-states of the European Union, which choose their deputies by universal, equal, and secret voting (this principle has started to work since September, 1976). The quantity of deputies in European Parliament is caused by population of every concrete state of the European Union.

Plato's Meno Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plato's Meno - Research Paper Example One very significant part of the Meno is that which demonstrates the Theory of Recollection, or the idea that â€Å"what appears to be learning something new is really recollecting something already known† (Cohen, University of Washington), or what is known as the doctrine of anamnesis, which means that â€Å"all learning is [merely] recollection† (Samet, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). This theory is what Socrates exactly proves to Meno when the latter asks, â€Å"†¦on what lines will you look, Socrates, for a thing of whose nature you know nothing at all?† (Plato, Meno, 80d2). The â€Å"thing† that Meno is referring to in his question is actually virtue, for this is the concept upon which the dialogue is particularly focused. Virtue, in fact, is the whole point of the discourse. However, the discussion has temporarily shifted to the Theory of Recollection in the middle part of the dialogue. This begins when Socrates has concluded that â€Å"[ no one] can know a part of virtue when he does not know virtue itself† (79c1), which means that neither Meno nor anyone else knows virtue. Upon hearing this, Meno then begins to ask Socrates a rather common sense question: How can the latter know that this is not virtue the former has been talking about early on in the dialogue when the latter himself does not know what virtue is? Socrates’ reply to this rather sarcastic accusation is the Theory of Recollection. In demonstrating the theory, Socrates first attempts to explain to Meno the roots of the theory by stating that it came from priests and priestesses (81a8) and poets â€Å"of heavenly gifts† (81b1), and that these people all say that â€Å"the soul of man is immortal† (81b1). Socrates then concludes from this premise that the soul â€Å"has been born many times, and has [therefore] beheld all things both in this world and in the nether realms [and therefore] has acquired knowledge of all and every thing† (81b1). Socrates then adds that since the soul has already learned everything, then â€Å"there is no reason why we should not, by remembering but one single thing – an act which men call learning – discover everything else† (81d1). Now, if one goes back to Meno’s accusing question - How can you look for something whose nature you do not know? – Socrates’ answer is that one actually already knows everything but simply cannot remember anything. In short, everyone knows what virtue is, only that not everyone can remember. According to Socrates, aside from courage and determination in searching, â€Å"research and learning† are needed in order to remember. Moreover, Socrates even equates â€Å"research and learning† with â€Å"recollection† (81d1), which means that, for the philosopher, the learning and the remembering are the same, and that everything is simply all remembering. After Socrates calls on the boy, what follows is an elenchus, whose literal meaning is â€Å"refutation† but may actually mean a type of â€Å"cross examination† (Ionescu 10). One purpose of the elenchus is for Socrates â€Å"to help his listeners discover for themselves the inadequacy of what they hold as true† (Johnston). A second purpose, however, is, according to Socrates himself, is for an individual to â€Å"[find] out the truth of the matter [and to] push on in the search gladly, as lacking knowledge† (Plato, Meno, 84b7). In short, the first purpose of this elenctic discourse is for someone to discover his ignorance and for him to search for the